The information below has been provided with kind permission of NSPCC.
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For children and young people up to the age of 18, you can contact ChildLine if you have any problem, big or small.
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Physical abuse

Introduction
If an adult deliberately hurts a child – causing them physical harm, such as cuts, bruises, broken bones or other injuries – it is physical abuse. It can include hitting, shaking, throwing, poisoning, burning, and slapping.
Children are at greater risk of physical abuse from parents who can’t cope, who have no support, or who don’t understand their child or how to be a parent. As well as physical harm, a child can also suffer mental and behavioural problems as a result of physical abuse.
It is very difficult to know if an injury or behaviour is the result of physical abuse, but if you are troubled by something you have seen it’s best to get some advice. If you think a child is in immediate danger call the police on 999 or the NSPCC Helpline on 0808 800 5000.

Causes
Being unable to cope with the stress and frustration of parenting can lead to physical abuse. A lack of support from family, friends or community often makes this problem worse. Parents who have learned bad parenting from others, perhaps from their own past experiences of a violent parent, may be a factor, as are unrealistic expectations of how a child should behave.
In particular, children born prematurely or disabled are more vulnerable to physical abuse. No-one knows for sure why this is the case, but the increased demands and stress of caring for a child with special needs could be a reason.
Whatever the situation, there is never a reason to injure a child.

Effects
The harm caused by physical abuse can range from minor injuries to major trauma. These can include:

Bruising
Burns or scalds
Bite marks
Fractures
Scarring
Poisoning
Drowning or suffocating
Head injuries caused by a blow or by shaking
Fabricated or induced illness

The experience of being harmed may, also, cause mental health and behavioural problems in a child, such as:

Depression and anxiety
Aggression and violence
Problems with relationships and socialising
Trying to hide injuries under clothing
Running away from home
Being distant and withdrawn.

Physical abuse during childhood can affect a person later in life as an adult, for example, it can cause conditions such as post traumatic stress disorder.

Signs
All children have accidents, like bumps and falls, which cause injury. However, you may have reasons for thinking that an injury has been inflicted on purpose if:

An injury strikes you as odd
A child is injured repeatedly
A parent delays seeking treatment
A parent or child gives unconvincing or inconsistent explanations about an injury.

What Injuries Are Normal For Children?
Bruising on the shins, knees, elbows, and backs of the hands
Bruising on children who are crawling or walking (especially older children)
Bruising on the forehead (for toddlers)
Scalds from hot liquid spills on the upper body

What Could Be Abuse?
Bruising on the cheeks, ears, back, buttocks, palms, arms, tummy, hips, backs of legs, and feet
Bruising on babies who are not yet crawling or walking
A history of bruising
Multiple bruises in clusters, usually on the upper arms or outer thighs
Bruises which look like they have been caused by fingers, a hand, or an object
Burns of the backs of the hands, feet, legs, genitals, or buttocks
Burns which have a clear shape, like a circular cigarette burn
Large oval shaped bite marks

As well as the visible signs of injury, physically abused children may also display signs in their behaviour: see effects.

Guidance
It is not currently against the law for parents to use physical punishment, within reason, with their own children; this means inflicting no more than a reddening of the skin that soon disappears. However, the NSPCC believes that positive parenting techniques are a far better alternative. Physical punishment could be considered by law as ‘unreasonable’ if a child is hit with an object, such as a belt, even if it doesn't leave a mark.

Knowing the difference between an accidental injury and that which is not requires experienced medical opinion. An injury may have been caused by an accident, it may not, but if you’re concerned about a child’s safety – or if you’ve witnessed an assault – it’s important to seek help for the child.

You can discuss your concerns with an NSPCC helpline adviser, who you can trust to properly assess the information you give them and to take action if necessary.

If you think a child is in immediate danger, contact the police on 999, or call the NSPCC Helpline on 0808 800 5000, as soon as you can.

Child Sexual Abuse

Introduction
Child sexual abuse involves enticing or forcing a child (or young person) to take part in sexual activities, or encouraging a child to behave in sexually inappropriate ways. Child sexual abuse includes:

Sexual touching of any part of the body, clothed or unclothed, including using an object
All penetrative sex, including penetration of the mouth with an object or part of the body
Encouraging a child to engage in sexual activity, including sexual acts with someone else, or making a child strip or masturbate
Intentionally engaging in sexual activity in front of a child or not taking proper measures to prevent a child being exposed to sexual activity by others
Meeting a child following sexual 'grooming', or preparation, with the intention of abusing them
Taking, making, permitting to take, distributing, showing or advertising indecent images of children
Paying for the sexual services of a child or encouraging them into prostitution or pornography
Showing a child images of sexual activity including photographs, videos or via webcams

What motivates someone to sexually abuse a child is complex and not fully understood. Sexual abuse can have very damaging effects on the victims, both while the abuse is occurring and long after it has stopped. When abuse is discovered, parents often say there were no obvious signs to make them suspect that their child was being sexually abused, even when the abuser was their partner – it can be very difficult to identify. However, there are steps you can take to help keep a child safe from sexual abuse and to protect a child if you suspect, or discover, that they have been abused. Email me.

Causes
Acts of child sexual abuse are committed by men, women, teenagers, and other children. Sex offenders (paedophiles) are found in all areas of society and come from a variety of backgrounds. Significantly more men than women sexually abuse children; however, the extent of female sexual abuse is under reported and is sometimes not recognised. Contrary to the popular image, abusers usually seem quite normal to others; friends, relatives and co-workers often find it hard to believe that someone they know has abused children. Abusers are often kind, concerned and caring towards children. They are more likely to be someone that the child knows, like a relative, family friend or person in a position of trust, rather than a stranger. An abuser may not see that they are doing anything to hurt the child, believing that the child is a willing participant.

If the abuser is another child or young person, the victim may be very confused about their feelings and may rationalise, or be persuaded, that what is happening is ‘normal’. A child may not say anything because they think it is their fault, that no one will believe them, or that they will be teased or punished. The child may even care for an abusing adult – they will want the abuse to stop, but they may fear the adult will go to prison or that their family will break up.
Very young children and disabled children are particularly vulnerable because they may not have the words or the ability to communicate to others what is happening to them.
The causes of sexually abusive behaviour towards children are complex and not fully understood. As well as the abusers' sexual urges and willingness to act upon those urges, other factors may be involved: power and control issues, traumatic childhood experiences, and dysfunctional families. Child sexual abuse can also be motivated by money, as it is in the case of child prostitution and pornography.

Effects
Both boys and girls can be victims of sexual abuse, which can have very damaging effects on them. These may include:

Aggressive behaviour, sleep problems, bed-wetting or soiling
Problems with school work or missing school
Risk taking behaviour during adolescence
Becoming sexually active at a young age
Promiscuity

For a few children these effects may be relatively short-term, depending on the individual child, the nature of the abuse and the help they receive. However, for many the effects can last into adulthood and cause a long list of problems, especially mental health problems and drug or alcohol misuse.

Signs
In addition to the effects that sexual abuse may have on a child, you may also notice other warning signs, such as a child who:

Suddenly starts to behave differently
Thinks badly or does not look after him or herself
Displays sexually inappropriate behaviour, including use of sexual language and sexual information which you would not expect them to know
Has physical symptoms that suggest sexual abuse – these can include anal or vaginal soreness or an unusual discharge, and pregnancy
Avoids being alone with a particular family member
Fears an adult or is reluctant to socialise with them
Tries to tell you about abuse indirectly, through hints or clues
Describes behaviour by an adult that suggests they are being ‘groomed’ for future abuse

You should also be alert to any adults who pay an unusual amount of attention to your child, for example:

Giving your child gifts, toys or favours
Offering to take your child on trips, outings and holidays
Seeking opportunities to be alone with your child

Guidance
If you suspect or discover that someone is sexually abusing a child you must get professional advice. Confronting the alleged abuser may give them the opportunity to silence, confuse or threaten the child about speaking about the abuse. It may also place the child in immediate danger. First, make sure you get advice by contacting your local police, social services, or by contacting the NSPCC Helpline on
0808 800 5000.

To help keep your child safe from sexual abuse there are several practical steps that you can take. You can:

Talk to your child to help them understand about their bodies and about sex, if you find this difficult, ask your school for books or leaflets
Build an open and trusting relationship with your child, so they feel they can talk to you about anything
Explain the difference between safe secrets, like a surprise birthday party, and unsafe secrets: things that make them feel unhappy or uncomfortable
Don't leave your child alone with anyone you aren't sure about
Teach your child how to use the Internet safely
Set and teach children to respect family boundaries – every family member has a right to privacy and this includes young children (sleeping arrangements, bathing, dressing etc.)
Teach your child that they have the right to refuse to do anything that their instincts tell them is wrong – teach your children how to say 'No!'
Teach your child to respect themselves and others, this is especially important for young boys to develop healthy relationships with girls
Provide supervision for the Internet, television and films.

Further Reading
Corby. B. (2006)  Child Abuse: Towards A Knowledge Base. England.Open University Press.
Howe. D, (2005)Child Abuse And Neglect: Attachment, Development And Intervention. New York. Palgrave Macmillan.
Sanford. T. (1991)Strong At The Broken Places: Overcoming The Trauma Of Child Sexual Abuse. London. Virago Press.